PERSONAL VALUES AND ETHICS

 According to Milton Rokeach, a value is "an enduring belief that a specific mode of conduct or end-stated of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct are end-state of existence".

Ethics involve the study of moral issues and choices. It is concerned with right versus wrong and good versus bad. Relative to the workplace, the terms business ethics and management ethics are often heard.

 

Moral Principles for Managers

• Judge actions by their consequences; achieve the greatest good for the greatest number of people.
• Basic human rights should be respected.
• Rules and rewards should be administered impartially, fairly and equitably.

 

Improving Organization's Ethical Climate

• Managers are powerful role models whose habits and actual behavior send clear signals about the importance of ethical conduct. Ethical behavior is a 1   top to bottom proposition.
• Screen potential employees by checking references, credentials, and other information for ascertaining their ethical behavior.

 

 

 

 

Personality is a complex, multi-dimensional construct and there is no simple definition of what personality is. Maddi defines personality as, ^“A stable set of characteristics and tendencies that determine those commonalities and differences in the psychological behavior and that may not be easily understood as the sole result of the social and biological pressures of the moment".

From the above definition we can infer that all individuals have some universally common characteristics. Yet they differ in some other specific attributes. This makes it difficult for the managers to assume that they can apply same reward types or motivation techniques to modify different individual behaviors. The definition, however, does not mean that people never change. In simple terms, it asserts that individuals do not change all at once. Their thoughts, feelings, values and actions remain relatively stable over time. Changes in individual's personality can, however, occur gradually over a period of time. The managers should, therefore, attempt to understand certain dimensions of personality. This can enable them to predict the behavior of their employees on a daily basis.

Some personality theorists stress the need 6f identifying person-situation as interaction. This is equivalent to recognizing thd social learning aspects related to personality. Such a social learning analysis is one of the most comprehensive and meaningful ways included in the overall study of organizational behavior. From this perspective, personality means the way people affect others. It also involves people's understanding themselves, as well as their pattern of inner and outer measurable traits, and the person and situation interaction. People affect others depending primarily upon their external appearance such as height, weight, facial features, color and other physical aspects and traits.

Personality traits are very important in organizational behavior. In particular, five personality traits especially related to job performance have recently emerged from research. Characteristics of these traits can be summarized as follows:

 

1.           Extroversion: Sociable, talkative and assertive.

2.           Agreeableness: Good-natured, cooperative and trusting.

3.           Conscientiousness: Responsible, dependable, persistent and achievement-oriented.  

4.           Emotional Stability: Viewed from a negative standpoint such as tense, insecure and nervous.

5.           Openness to Experience: Imaginative, artistically sensitive and intellectual.

 

Identifying the above "big five" traits related to performance reveals that personality plays an important role in organizational behavior. Besides physical appearance and personality traits, the aspects of personality concerned with the self-concept such as self-esteem and self-efficacy and the person-situation interaction also play important roles.

 

PERSONALITY FORMATION

The personality formation of an individual starts at birth and continues throughout his life. Three major types of factors play important roles in personality formation, which are as follows:

• Determinants: The most widely studied determinants of personality are biological, social and cultural. People grow up in the presence of certain hereditary characteristics (body shape and height), the social context (family and friends) and the cultural context (religion and values). These three parts interact with • each other to shape personality. As people grow into adulthood, their personalities become very clearly defined and generally stable.
• Stages: According to Sigmund Freud human personality progresses through four stages: dependent, compulsive, oedipal and mature. This concept of stages of growth provides a valuable perspective to organizational behavior. Experienced managers become aware of the stages that their employees often go through. This helps them 19 deal with these stages effectively and promote maximum growth for the individual and for the organization.
• Traits: Traits to personality are also based on psychology. According to some trait theories, all people share common traits, like social, (political, religious and aesthetic preferences but each individual's nature differen­tiates that person from all others.

 

 

 

PERSONALITY FACTORS IN ORGANISATIQN5

Some of the important personality factors that determine what kind of behaviors are exhibited at work include the following:

 

Need Pattern

Steers and Braunstein in 1976 ^developed a scale for the four needs of personality that became apparent in the 'work environment. They are as follows:

 

• The need for achievement: Those with a high achievement need engage themselves proactively in work behaviors in order to feel proud of their achievements and successes.
• The need for affiliation: Those in greater need for affiliation like to work cooperatively with others.
• The need for autonomy: Those in need for autonomy function in the best way when not closely supervised.
• The need for dominance: Those high in need for dominance are very effective while operating in environments where they can actively enforce their legitimate authority.

Locus of Control

Locus of control is the degree to which an individual believes that his or her behavior has direct impact on the consequences of that behavior. Some people, for example, believe that if they work hard they will certainly succeed. They, strongly believe that each individual is in control of his or her life. They are said to have an internal locus of control. By contrast, some people think that what happens to them is a result of fate, chance, luck or the behavior of other people, rather than the lack of skills or poor performance on their part. Because- these individuals think that forces beyond their control dictate the happenings around them, they are said to have an external locus of control.

As a personality attribute, locus of control has clear implications for organizations. For example, certain individuals have an internal locus of control, which means they have a relatively strong desire to participate in the management of their organizations and have a' freedom to do their jobs. Thus, they may prefer a decentralized organization where they have a right of decision-making and work with a leader who provides them freedom and autonomy. They may like a reward system that recognizes individual performance and contributions.

Conversely, people with an external locus of control, are likely to prefer a more centralized organization where they need not take any decisions. They may incline to structured jobs where standard procedures are defined for them. They may prefer a leader who makes most of the decisions and a reward system that considers seniority rather than merit.

 

Introversion and Extroversion

Introversion is the tendency of individuals, which directs them to be inward and process feelings, thoughts and ideas within themselves. Extroversion, on the contrary, refers to the tendency in individuals to look outside themselves, searching for external stimuli with which they can interact. While there is some element of introversion as well as extroversion in all of us, people tend to be dominant as either extroverts or introverts. Extroverts are sociable, lively and gregarious and seek outward stimuli or external exchanges. Such individuals are likely to be most successful while working in the sales department, publicity office, personal relations unit, and so on, where they can interact face to face with others. Introverts, on the other Hand, are quiet, reflective, introspective, and intellectual people, preferring to interact with a small intimate circle of friends. Introverts are more likely to be successful when they can work on highly abstract ideas such as R&D work, in a relatively quiet atmosphere. Since managers have to constantly interact with individuals both in and out of the organization and influence people to achieve the organization's goals, it is believed that extroverts are likely to be more successful as managers.

FUTURE OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR

 The growing interest in organizational behavior stems from both a philosophical desire by many people to create more humanistic work places and a practical need to design more productive work environments. As a result of these forces, organizational behavior is now a part of the curriculum of almost all courses including engineering and medical.

The field of organizational behavior has grown in depth and breadth. The keys to its past and future success revolve around the related processes of theory development, research and managerial practice.

Although organizational behavior has certain limitations, it has a tremendous potential to contribute to the advancement of civilisation. It has provided and will provide much improvement in the human environment. By building a better climate for people, organizational behavior will release their creative potential to solve major social problems. In this way organizational behavior will contribute to social improvements. Improved organizational behavior is not easy to apply but opportunities are there. It should produce a higher quality of life in which there is improved harmony within each individual, among people and among the organizations of future.

Physical abilities such as strength, flexibility, endurance and stamina can be developed with exercise and training. Mental abilities such as reasoning, memory visualization, comprehension and inter-personal abilities can also be developed through practice and education. Even in the absence of such formal programs, many individuals manage their own careers in such a way as to continually upgrade their abilities, skills and competencies in order to remain valuable to their organizations.

LIMITATIONS OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR

 

•  .Organizational behavior cannot abolish conflict and frustration but can only reduce them. It is a way to improve but not an absolute answer to problems.
• It is only one of the many systems operating within a large social system.
• People who lack system understanding may develop a 'behavioral basis', which gives them a narrow view point, i.e., a tunnel vision that emphasizes on satisfying employee experiences while overlooking the broader system of an organization in relation to all its public.
• The law of diminishing returns also operates in the case of organizational behavior. It states, that at some point increase of a desirable practice produce declining returns and sometimes, negative returns. The concept implies that for any situation there is an optimum amount of a desirable practice. When that point is exceeded, there is a decline in returns. For example, too much security may lead to less employee initiative and growth. This relationship shows that organizational effectiveness is achieved not by maximizing one human variable but by working all system variables together in a balanced way.
• A significant concern about organizational behavior is that its knowledge and techniques could be used to manipulate people without regard for human welfare. People who lack ethical values could use people in unethical ways.

IMPORTANCE OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR TO MANAGERS

 Managers perform four major functions such as planning, organizing, directing and controlling. In addition to these functions there are ten managerial roles, which can be defined as organized set of behaviors identified with the position. These roles are developed by Henry Mintzberg in 1960s after a careful study of executives at work. All these roles, in one form or other deal with people and their behavior. These ten managerial roles are divided into three categories. The first category called the interpersonal roles arises directly from the manager's position and the formal authority given to him. The second category, the informational role arises as a direct result of the interpersonal roles and these two categories give rise to the third category called decisional roles. 

The roles, in the context of organizational behavior, are as follows:

Interpersonal Roles                 

In every organization managers spend a considerable amount of time in interacting with other people both within their own organizations as well as outside. These people include peers, subordinates, superiors, suppliers, customers, government officials and community leaders. All these interactions require an understanding of interpersonal behavior. Studies show that interacting with people takes up nearly 80% of a manager's time. These interactions involve the following three major interpersonal roles:

• Figure/lead Role: Managers act as symbolic figureheads performing social or legal obligations. These duties include greeting visitors, signing legal documents, taking important customers to lunch, attending a subordinate's wedding and speaking at functions in schools and churches. All these, primarily, are duties of a ceremonial nature but are important for the smooth functioning of an organization.
• Leadership Role: The influence of the manager is most clearly seen in the leadership role as a leader of a unit or an organization. Since he is responsible for the activities of his subordinates therefore he must lead and coordinate their activities in meeting task-related goals and motivate them to perform better. He must be an ideal leader so that his subordinates follow his directions and guidelines with respect and dedication.
• Liaison Role: The managers must maintain a network of outside contacts. In addition, they need to have a constant contact with their own subordinates, peers and superiors in order to assess the external environment of competition, social changes or changes in governmental rules and regulations. In this role, the managers build up their own external information system. This can be achieved by attending meetings and professional conferences, personal phone calls, trade journals and informal personal contacts with outside agencies.

 

Information Roles

A manager, by virtue of his interpersonal contacts, emerges as a source of information about a variety of issues concerning an organization. In this capacity of information processing, a manager executes the following three roles.

• Monitor Role: The managers are constantly monitoring and scanning their internal and external environment, collecting and studying information regarding their organization. This can be done by reading reports and periodicals, interrogating their liaison contacts and through gossip, hearsay and speculation.
• Information   Disseminator Role: The   managers   must   transmit   the information  regarding  changes  in policies  or  other  matters  to  their subordinates, their peers and to other members of an organization. This can be done through memos, phone calls, individual meetings and group meetings.
•  Spokesman Role: A manager has to be a spokesman for his unit and represent his unit in either sending relevant information to people outside his unit or making some demands on behalf of his unit.

Decision Roles

A manager must make decisions and solve organizational problems on the basis of the environmental information received. In that respect, a manager plays four important roles.

• Entrepreneur Role: Managers, as entrepreneurs are constantly involved in improving their units and facing the dynamic technological challenges. They are constantly on the lookout for new ideas for product improvement or product addition. They initiate feasibility studies, arrange capital for new products   and   ask   for suggestions   from   the   employees   to   improve organization. This can be achieved through suggestion boxes, holding strategy meetings with project managers and R&D personnel.
• Conflict Handling Role: The managers are constantly involved as judge in solving conflicts among the employees and between employees and management. Mangers must anticipate such problems and take preventive action and take corrective action once the problem arises. These problems may involve labor disputes, customer complaints, employee grievances, machine breakdowns, cash flow shortages and interpersonal conflicts.
• Resource Allocation Role: The managers establish priorities among various projects or programs and make budgetary allocations to different activities of an organization based on these priorities.
• Negotiator Role: The managers in their negotiator role represent their organization in negotiating deals and agreements within and outside of an organization. They negotiate contracts with the unions. Sales managers may negotiate prices with prime customers. Purchasing managers may negotiate prices with vendors.

All these ten roles are important in a manager's job and are interrelated, even though some roles may be more influential than others depending upon the managerial position. For example, sales manager gives more importance to interpersonal roles, while the production manager may give more importance to decisional roles.

Four models of organizational behavior

 A. Autocratic model

B. Custodial model

C. Supportive model

D. Collegial model

 Autocratic Model  

In an autocratic model', the manager has the power to command his subordinates to do a specific job. Management believes that it knows what is best for an organization and therefore, employees are required to follow their orders. The psychological result of this model on employees is their increasing dependence on their boss. Its main weakness is its high human cost.

 Custodial Model

This model focuses better employee satisfaction and security. Under this model organizations satisfy the security and welfare needs of employees. Hence, it is known as custodian model. This model leads to employee dependence on an organization rather than on boss. As a result of economic rewards and benefits, employees are happy and contented but they are not strongly motivated.

 

Supportive Model

The supportive model depends on 'leadership' instead of power or money. Through leadership, management provides a climate to help employees grow and accomplish in the interest of an organization. This model assumes that employees will take responsibility, develop a drive to contribute and improve them if management will give them a chance. Therefore, management's direction is to 'Support' the employee's job performance rather than to 'support' employee benefit payments, as in the custodial approach. Since management supports employees in their work, the psychological result is a feeling of participation and task involvement in an, organization.

Collegial Model

The term 'collegial' relates to a body of persons having a common purpose. It is a team concept. Management is the coach that builds a better team. The management is seen as joint contributor rather than as a boss. The employee response to this situation is responsibility. The psychological result of the collegial approach for the employee is 'self-discipline'. In this kind of environment employees normally feel some degree of fulfillment and worthwhile contribution towards their work. This results in enthusiasm in employees' performance.

 

FOUR MODELS OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR

 

	Autocratic	Custodial	Supportive	Collegial
Basis of Model	Power	Economic resources	Leadership	Partnership
Managerial-  orientation	Authority	Money	Support	Teamwork
Employee psychological result	Dependence on boss	Dependence on organization	Participation	Self-discipline
Employee needs met	Subsistence	Security	Status and recognition	Self-actualization
Performance result	Minimum	Passive cooperation	Awakened drives	Moderate enthusiasm

 It is wrong to assume that a particular model is the best model. This is because a model depends on the knowledge about human behavior in a particular environment, which is unpredictable. The primary challenge for management is to identify the model it is actually using and then assess its current effectiveness.

 The selection of model by a manager is determined by a number of factors such as, the existing philosophy, vision and goals of manager. In addition, environmental conditions help in determining which model will be the most effective model.

CONCEPT OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR SYSTEM

 Organizations achieve their goals by creating, communicating and operating an organizational behavior system. Organizational behavior system defines organizational structure and culture and explains their impact on employees. The figure 3.1 shows the major elements of a good organizational behavior system:

These systems exist in every organization, but sometimes in varying forms. They have a greater chance of being successful, though, if they have been consciously created, regularly examined and updated to meet new and emerging conditions. The primary advantage of organizational behavior system is to identify the major human and organizational variables that affect organizational outcomes. For some variables managers can only be aware of them and acknowledge their impact whereas for other variables, managers can exert some control over them. The outcomes are measured in terms of quantity and quality of products and services, level of customer service, employee satisfaction and personal growth and development.

 

These systems exist in every organization, but sometimes in varying forms. They have a greater chance of being successful, though, if they have been consciously created, regularly examined and updated to meet new and emerging conditions. The primary advantage of organizational behavior system is to identify the major human and organizational variables that affect organizational outcomes. For some variables managers can only be aware of them and acknowledge their impact whereas for other variables, managers can exert some control over them. The outcomes arc measured in terms of quantity and quality of products and services, level of customer service, employee satisfaction and personal growth and development.

Factors That Influence Organizational Buying Decisions

 If your organization is a B to B organization, you must consider the factors that influence organizational buying decisions, when developing your marketing plans and sales strategies. To know more about these factors, keep reading.

·         Organizational buying is much more complex than consumer buying, and thus deserves to be studied separately. The entwined interpersonal relationships and the multiple communication processes between the organizational members, involved in the buying decision process, are some of the major contributors to this complexity. The list of affecting factors isn’t limited to these; there are many more important determinants. Let’s take a look at what factors influence organizational buyers and their buying behavior. But before that we’d just like to divert your attention to why organizational buying is so different.

·         Unique Features of Organizational Buying

1.   Organizational buying is mostly a multi-person activity, and that’s true for more than 90% of the organizational buying. Decisions for some of the bigger purchases may have participants from a range of departments and from different management levels. Think about the purchase of new software – it may require a collective decision made by end users and people from the IT, finance and administration departments.

2.   When organizations make purchases there is always a meticulous formal process that precedes the actual purchasing.

3.   Organizational buying decisions are never made at the spur of a moment. The buying decision making is stretched and this drag can even be a year long, when it comes to critical purchases.

·         External Environmental Factors

As a major constraint under which a business operates, the external environment impacts nearly every aspect of a business, including its buying decisions. Here’s a list of the external elements that affect organizational buying.

Economic Conditions: The fluctuations in the money markets and the interest rates have a major impact on the buying strategies. The interest rates and organizational buying have an inverse relation; in most cases, an increase in the interest rates may bring about a drop in the buying.

Regulatory Changes: Any changes in the corporate laws, rules and regulations will also influence how, when and what the organizations buy. There are also regulatory changes that may affect only a particular industry and accordingly the related organizations will change their buying patterns to stay in-line with the new regulations.

Political Environment: A change of the government or policy has a direct impact on the economic scenario, and this ultimately translates into a shift in the organizational buying patterns as well.

Social Environment: Societies and cultures are ever evolving, and every business has to change its practices and procedures to meet up with the societal changes. For instance with the rise in the number of animal lovers, pure leather suppliers have seen a slump in their business. The clothing and footwear manufacturers have shifted to artificial leather suppliers. This points out how the social environment can affect the buying patterns of organizations.

Competition: Today’s business is all about beating competition and staying ahead. So when an organization's competitors move on to a newer product or service, or if they get to enjoy a competitive edge because of their suppliers, it's very likely for the organization to change its trends too and thus its buying pattern will change accordingly.

The external environment is the first of the four major factors that influence organizational behavior as shown in this diagram which you can click on to enlarge.

·         Internal Organizational Factors

More than the external factors, it’s the internal organizational factors that influence organizational buying. These internal factors are the:

Organization's Goals and Objectives: The goals and objectives of an organization are major determinants as to how and what the organization will purchase. An organization that wants to capture a bigger chunk of the market by selling cheaper stuff is more likely to look for suppliers who can supply larger quantities at a low price. However, a company whose goal is to deliver quality products may have a very contrasting buying pattern, and they will focus more on the quality issues than on the price advantage.

Organizational Structure: Hierarchical and management structures vary from one organization to another. While some organizations have a well established purchase department, others may assign this job to the HR or Administration department. There are also organizations where the purchase decisions must be taken collectively by all concerned departments. The organizations also have well-defined guidelines as to which purchase decisions can be made by which management level. The internal setup and how authority and responsibility flow through it, play an important role in the organizational purchasing.

Policies and Procedures: How the purchase order is routed, depends on the organization's policies. How does the buying procedure begin, who will participate and who has the ultimate authority to decide on the purchase are all dependent on the policies and procedures of the organization. Some organizations prefer to invite public bids, while others may contact only the few suppliers on their list. There are also budgetary policies that have a say in the purchase decisions, for instance while some organizations may have a flexible policy to make purchases as and when the need arises, others may have to wait till the allocation of the annual or biannual budget.

Technological Levels: Whenever making new purchases, organizations take into consideration their current technology. Some purchases are meant to replace the current technology with a newer version, so their buying decision will be influenced by what level of technology they currently own. Also, organizations try to ensure that all new purchases being made are technologically compatible with their existing technology. So, one way or the other – an organization's existing technology has a major influence on its future purchases.

Manpower Skills: Whether the organization has the skilled manpower to make proper and optimum use of the new purchases being made, especially equipment and machinery, is another issue that influences organizational buying.

·         Interpersonal and Individual Factors

Since organizational buying decisions are never a one person affair, interpersonal relationships among the decision makers plays a vital role in this type of buying.

Participation and Authority: In organizational buying situations, there are always re-defined rules as to who can participate in the purchase decision and who is the ultimate deciding authority.

Interpersonal Conflict: Interpersonal conflicts and conflicts of interest amongst the decision makers often results in delays and changes. Thus, the kind of thinking and the kind of relationship the decision makers share have a major role to play in corporate buying.

Education and Awareness: The educational background of the decision makers and their level of awareness have a major bearing on what type of purchases they will make.

Risk Taking Ability: If the buying committee constitutes high risk takers, they will not be averse to the idea of choosing the latest technology or new suppliers. While on the other hand, decision makers with a low risk taking tolerance are more likely to stick to proven and tested technology or to well known and well established suppliers.

Individual Factors: Individual factors such as age, cultural background and social status, of the members on the buying team, also influence the buying decisions.

·         Situational Factors

In this final section we’ll take a look at some of the situational factors that can influence organizational buyers.

Time Factor: Sometimes, organizations don’t have all the time to follow the detailed buying procedure. If the organization needs a replacement for equipment that broke down suddenly, it may decide to place its order with some existing supplier or a supplier that is at close proximity.

Current Financial Situation: If the organization is crunched for cash, it may decide to place its order with one of its existing supplier who offers extended credit. Also, if the organization cannot spare out enough money for a certain purchase, it may opt for a readily available cheaper version that fits into its budget.

Availability: Some buying decisions can wait while others cannot, thus if the supplier cannot make available the exact product by the desired date, the organizational buyers may shift to a new supplier or to a more readily available alternative.

Special Offers: Special offers being given by a supplier may also be one of the situational factors affecting the buying decision.

As a supplier, now that you know what factors influence organizational buyers, you can work up your business to business sales strategies to manipulate organizational buying activities and thus procure more orders for your supply business.

FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR

 Organizational behavior starts with the following six fundamental concepts revolving around the nature of people and organizations:

The nature of people:

• Individual differences
• A whole person
• Motivated behavior
• Value of the person

The nature of organization:

• Social system
• Mutual interest
• Individual Differences: Individuals are different in their physical and mental traits. They are different not only in the physical appearance such as sex, age, height, weight, complexion and so on but also different in their psychological trait such as intelligence, attitude, motivation and perception. This belief that each person is different from all others is typically called the 'Law of Individual Differences'. Individual differences mean that the management has to treat them differently to get the best out of them.
• A Whole Person: Though the organization may feel that they are employing only the individual's skill or intelligence, in fact, they employ the 'whole person'. This means that individual does not have only the skill and intelligence but he has a personal life, needs and desires as well. In other words, his personal life cannot be separated from his work life since people function as total human beings.

When management practices Organizational behavior, it is not only trying to develop a better employee but it also wants to develop a 'better person' in terms of all round growth and development. The benefit will extend beyond the firm into the larger society in which each employee lives.

• Motivated behavior: It is the urge of the individual to satisfy a particular need that motivates him to do an act. The motivation could be positive or negative.

     Motivation is essential for the proper functioning of organizations. The organization can show to its employees how certain actions will increase their need fulfilment.

• Value of the Person: It is more an ethical philosophy. It stresses that people are to be treated with respect and dignity. Every job, however simple, entitles the people who do it to proper respect and recognition of their unique aspirations and abilities.  Since Organizational behavior involves people, ethical philosophy is involved in one way or the other.

The nature of an organization can be understood with the help of tjie description of following two points:

 

• Social System: A system is a group of independent and interrelated elements comprising a unified whole. In context with an organization, the individuals of a society are considered as a system organised by a characteristic pattern of relationships having a distinctive culture and values. It is also called social organization or social structure. It can be further divided into following categories:

• Feudal system: This is a social system, which is developed in Europe in the 8th Century. A political and economic system based on the holding of. land and relation of lord to vassal and characterized by homage, legal and military service of tenants, and forfeiture.
• Patriarchate: This is social system, in which a male is considered to be the family head and title or surname is traced through his chain. In other words, power lies in his hands.
• Matriarchate: This is social system, in which a female is considered to be the family head and title or surname is traced through her chain. In other words, power lies in her hands.
• Meritocracy: This is a social system, in which power vests in the hands of the person with superior intellects.
• Class Structure: This is a social system of different classes with in a society.
• Segregation: This is a social system, which provides separate facilities for minority groups of a society.

• Mutual Interest: Organizational relationships are most likely to be strong if different groups can negotiate strategies. This can be defined as the interests that are common to both the parties and are related to the accomplishment of their respective goals. This space for sharing ideas builds trust. Individuals who have shared mutual interests are likely to make their organization the strongest, because even though the views are different they have a shared concern for similar objectives. It is important for the individuals to think about their issues openly, and to incorporate the perspectives of their colleagues. This helps to build sustainable and harmonious activities that can operate in the mutual direct interests of the organization.

Holistic Organizational Behavior: When the above six concepts of Organizational behavior are considered together, they provide a holistic concept of the subject. Holistic Organizational behavior interprets people-organization relation­ships in terms of the whole person, whole group, whole organization and whole social system.

Thus, the blending of nature of people and organization results in an holistic Organizational behavior.

Organizational behavior LEVELS OF ANALYSIS

 Organizational behavior can be viewed from different perspectives or levels of analysis. At one level, the organization can be viewed as consisting of individuals working on tasks in the pursuit of the Organizational goals. A second level of analysis focuses upon the interaction among Organizational members as they work in' teams, groups and departments. Finally, Organizational behavior can be analyzed from the perspective of the organization as a whole.

• Organization at the Individual Level: Organizational behavior can be studied in the perspective of individual members of the organization. This approach to Organizational behavior draws heavily on the discipline of psychology and explains why individuals behave and react the way they do to different Organizational policies, practices and procedures. Within this perspective, psychologically based theories of learning, motivation, satisfaction and leadership are brought to bear upon the behavior and performance of individual members of an organization. Factors such as attitudes, beliefs, perceptions and personalities are taken into account and their impact upon individuals’ behavior and performance on the job is studied.
• Organization at the Group Level: People rarely work independently in organizations; they have to necessarily work in coordination to meet the Organizational goals. This frequently results in people working together in teams, committees and groups. How do people work together in groups? What factors determine whether group will be cohesive and productive? What types of tasks could be assigned to groups? These are some of the questions that can be asked about the effective functioning of groups in organizations. An important component of Organizational behavior involves the application of knowledge and theories from social psychology to the study of groups in organizations.
• Organization at the Organizational Level: Some Organizational behavior researchers take the organization as a whole as their object of study. This j macro perspective on Organizational behavior draws heavily on theories and concepts from the discipline of 'sociology'. Researchers seek to understand the implications of the relationship between the organization and its environment for the effectiveness of the organization. Emphasis is placed upon understanding how Organizational structure and design influences the effectiveness of an organization. Other factors such as the technology employed by the organization, the size of the organization and the organization's age are also examined and their implications for effective Organizational functioning are explored.

These different perspectives on the study of Organizational behavior are not in conflict with one another. Instead they are complementary. A full and complete understanding of the nature of organizations and the determinants of their effectiveness requires a blending of knowledge derived from each perspective.